Explain how to implement exception handling and logging in production‑grade Python applications.

In production Python code, robust exception handling and logging are essential for reliability and observability. Use try/except blocks to catch specific exceptions rather than a blanket Exception, and re‑raise or log unexpected errors. The logging module should be configured at the application start: set a root logger level (e.g., INFO), add handlers (FileHandler, RotatingFileHandler, or SyslogHandler), and format logs with timestamps, log levels, module names, and message. For critical errors, log at ERROR or CRITICAL and optionally send alerts via email or monitoring services. Use structured logging (JSON) to enable log aggregation tools. Ensure logs are rotated and archived to prevent disk exhaustion. Wrap external calls in retry logic with exponential backoff, and log each retry attempt. Finally, integrate health checks and metrics (e.g., Prometheus) to surface exception rates. This approach provides traceability, aids debugging, and supports continuous monitoring in production.