When are automated tests typically executed in a CI/CD pipeline?

Automated tests are usually executed at multiple stages of a CI/CD pipeline. Unit tests run immediately after code is committed and built to catch syntax or logic errors early. Integration and end-to-end tests run after the build is deployed to a test environment, often triggered by a successful build or a pull request merge. Acceptance tests may run in a staging environment before a release candidate is promoted to production. Finally, smoke tests run after deployment to production to confirm that critical functionality works. This layered approach ensures that defects are caught as early as possible, reducing the cost and effort of fixing them.